معرفت اخلاقی

 Moral Obligations of High Ranking Military Commanders towards the Subjects in Nahjul-Balaghah

Abulfazl Ahmadi Kashani*

Abstract
In their interaction with the subject, military commanders may encounter today’s issues related to military forces which interfere with Islamic moral teachings or vice versa, even though they are, according to military forces' moral convention considered acceptable. Therefore, in some cases Muslim military commanders do not abide by moral standards, for example, by imposing punishment on all without distinguishing between the guilty and the innocent, and through concealing intelligence from their intimate friends which can be considered as a hypocritical behavior.
Using an analytical-descriptive approach, the present paper seeks to show military commanders the right way to making sound decisions about some challenging moral issues by focusing on Imam Ali's views in Nahjul-Balaghah. This research concludes that it is necessary for military commanders to observe certain principles in their interaction with their subordinates, such as: 1. To God and justice centeredness. 2. Giving priority to Islam's security and defensive interests over other personal and family interests.
Key words: right centeredness, commanders’ moral, subordinates, military forces, security and defensive interests, Nahjul-Balaghah.

Religious Mortality and Cyber Interaction

Gholam Heydar Koosha*

Abstract
The present paper tries to discuss the traumatic aspects of cyber space and introduce religious morality as a substitute for decreasing the damages. It elaborates on the main features of the media, the weakness in the users' morals, the remarkable effects achievements of religion on strengthening users' morality, and the strategies in strengthening religious morality. It is emphasized that the national and international measures do not have efficient means for decreasing or eliminating the existing abnormalities and it is an individual-moral strategy and more specifically religious morality that can change traumatic cyber space to a secure environment. Religious morality both strengthens the discursive grounds of users' morality and provides them with an efficient sanction. The among the perquisites of a individual- moral strategy of religious sociability are strengthening the spirit of self-other identification, familiarity with logical consequence of users' behavior, and institutionalization of the principle of enjoining good and forbidding evil.
Key words: ethics, religious morality, cyber interaction, media ethics, morals of cyber users.

A Contrast of Honesty and Transparency in Islamic Market

Mustafa Kazemi*, Parviz Davoodi**, Seyyed Mohammad Kazim Rajaii***

Abstract
Market transparency can be defined as a "timely and reliable trend of economic, social and political information available to those who interest in market".  Although most economists have explained the feature of transparency or confidential information for healthy competition market have been defined, most economists admit that most markets suffer from lack of information. They have proposed such strategies like suppliers' signaling, organizing institutions and state's management and supervision as a means to compensate this lack of information in market. It seems that capitalist economy cannot compensate this lack by relying on its principles.
In Islamic market, the term "honesty" is a moral virtue and a graded perfection with a foundation and value load which are not found in transparency. It is not only the characteristics of market but also of the agents of the market that should be considered. By honesty, we mean its broad meaning, that is, honesty in terms of intention, conduct, and structure. In a market in which honesty is dominant, both sides of transaction have a sense of quiescence towards each other's behavior and no one of them keeps things secret while purchasing goods. If there is a mistake, it can be compensated through a certain market mechanism.
Key words: honesty, transparency, confidential information, Islamic market, healthy competition market.

The Role of Person and Situation in Moral Judgment

Nasser Aqababaii*, Jawad Hatami**

Abstract
The present paper studies the role of the variation among individuals in terms of moral judgment, using a survey-analytical approach. Two research projects were conducted. In the first, 225 university students answered the trolley problem and completed the international personality item pool and religious orientation scale. In the second research, 164 university students answered another version of trolley problem and completed HEXACO personality questionnaire, a questionnaire on curiosity and exploration 2, and spirituality self-assessment scale. The results of these two research projects generally indicate that gender, age, religious and personality variables have no relationship with moral judgment. Furthermore, they indicate that there is a less possibility of disagreement with harming someone if the effect is saving several people than with the case in which harming someone leads to saving several people. Therefore, the moral judgment on trolley problem is not sensitive to the variation among individuals, but a doer’s intention and situation are crucial constituents regarding making moral judgment about others' behavior.
Key words: moral judgment, trolley problem, variation among individuals, personality, psychology of ethics.

A Critique of Sartre's Moral Thoughts

Rahim Dehqan Simkani*

Abstract
It is necessary to take a speculative look at Sartre's moral theory due to its particular problems. Having atheistic ideas, Sartre bases his moral thoughts on a kind of humanistic attitude concomitant with omitting the Necessary Being. Anthropocentrism, negation of moral realism, impossibility of man's friendship with others, insufficiency of moral rules in regulating men's behaviors, not providing a sound criterion to regulate the behaviors and meaninglessness of ethics or promoting a kind of moral anarchism are among the consequences of Sartre's moral thoughts which significantly undermine the validity of this theory. Using a documentary analysis, content analysis method, and critical analysis approach, the present paper tries to examine Sartre's theory and underline some of its shortcomings.
Key words: ethics, existentialism, humanism, freedom, Sartre.

Moral Obligations in Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi Misbah Viewpoint

Nargis Rahimi*

Abstract
The term moral obligations is used when the moral rules of our volitional acts are examined. Ayatollah Misbah thinks that obligatory concepts, that is "ought tos and ought not tos", are philosophical terms which refer to the real and significant relationship between man's volitional act and its consequences. Neither the doer and act nor this necessity constitutes the kind of necessity in relation to something else. The purpose of "ought to" in moral propositions, like natural and mathematical propositions, is to explain the necessity between man's volitional act and his desired perfection.
The important result of this theory is that all moral propositions, even “ought tos” and “ought not tos”, concern realities. The conventional concept of necessity also has an external origin and indicates the reality in itself. Therefore, the fallacy of "is─ought to" in moral rules is rendered invalid; accordingly, “ought tos” and “ought not tos” have a root in reality, and it is possible that value propositions are based on factual propositions.
Key words: moral concepts, moral obligation, ought to and ought not to, necessity, volitional act, desired perfection.

An Analysis of the Concept
of "Prima Facie Duty" in David Ross's Ethics

Hussein Atrak*

Abstract
Sir William David Ross, a deontological philosopher, proposed two concepts: "prima facie duty" and "actual duty" in his innovative theory to solve the problem of the conflict between duties which Kant faced. Conflict is only related to prima facie duties, but in actual duty, the doer always notice only one duty. However, Ross tried to offer other interpretations and use other term for "prima facie duty" by which he intended to fulfill his aims and objectives, because he was worried that it would be misunderstood. He offers five interpretations for "prima facie": conditional duty, particularistic duty, inclination towards duty, balance, and responsibility. The present paper deals with the semantics of "prima facie duty" in Ross's ethics, using an analytical approach.
Key words: philosophy of ethics, deontology, Ross, prima facie duty, actual duty.